Student Volunteer Movement - Kumbaya

Topic: Kumbaya 1955-1961
The Student Volunteer Movement was the third organization that introduced “Kumbaya” before Lynn Rohrbough released his Song Sampler in January 1956.  It held a convention in Athens, Ohio, over the 1955–1956 holiday break.  Frederick Hilborn Talbot remembered “the song was sung alternatively by the gathering.” [1]

SVM was an offshoot of the activities of  William Taylor.  As the Missionary Bishop of Africa for the Methodist Episcopal Church North from 1884 to 1896, he organized the denomination’s first missions to Liberia, the Congo, Angola, and Mozambique. [2]  In 1886, the Chicago-based evangelist, Dwight L. Moody, organized a conference to support Taylor’s activities.  This led to the organization of SVM in 1888.  Their goal was to “evangelize the world in one generation.” [3]

Harlan Hatcher, president of the University of Michigan, noted “such quadrennial conferences have been held for more than fifty years, but this was the first one in which over half the students who attended were from countries throughout the world where the Younger Churches had been established during the past century.” [4]

Three thousand attended. [5]  Rosa Page Welch remembered “an African student led the conference in singing” the song. [6]

Rohrbough also attended.  He recalled:

“Rosa Page Welsh led the singing at the Athens SVM Convention; the Negro was F.Talbot; from B.Guiana; a Theo. student from Yale; we have tapes of all singing; and the Africans were from Kenya,Ghana.” [7]

Talbot did not specifically say he led the singing.  He was not from Africa, but from British Guinea, [8] then a colony of the United Kingdom on the northern coast of South America.  However, Welch, who was an African American from Port Gibson, Mississippi, [9] may have made an assumption based on context and skin color.

The identity of the singer is less important than how the individual learned “Kumbaya.”  It is possible the song leader had attended the Buckeye Recreation Workshop, or even been the one who introduced the song there.  It is less likely he learned it from Melvin Blake.

The most likely possibility is that Rohrbough, himself, was responsible.  His Song Sampler is dated January 1956.  No doubt he had proofs, and may even have had copies that were ready for mailing.  It also is likely he had some kind of vendor’s booth at the convention, where he may have distributed copies of the Sampler or the song to promote his business.  It is not likely he distributed the songbook itself to the entire crowd of 3,000.

Someone had given him $1,000 to distribute issues of the Sampler for one year. [10]  It included an article by Janet Tobitt on “You Can Lead in Singing,” and profiled her as a world traveler.  It claimed the selection of songs were ones “which have been popular at Paris Y Centennial, the Purdue Convocation, and Sing Sessions in Pennsylvania and Indiana.” [11]

The collection was a poor fit for a group with half its members committed to missionary work.  Eight of the twenty-one titles were religious in a broad sense, but few were actual hymns that could be used in formal sessions.

The other half of the attendees were international students from countries where Protestant church missionaries were active.  The U. S. State Department had begun promoting “educational exchanges with other nations” as part of Franklin Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy.  In 1940, the University of Michigan’s contacts were mainly in Latin America, with some exchanges with Turkey. [12]

After the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, the federal government began providing financial support for international students.  In 1957, Asher Lubotszky said a quarter of the foreign students at Indiana University had such support.  He indicated that the state-sponsored school had 500 students in 1957, up from less then 50 in the early 1940s. [13]

Protestant churches’ missionary efforts primarily had been directed toward countries with religions that were not based on the Bible.  The most populous such areas were in Asia, followed by Africa.  These were the nations targeted by the State Department.  At IU, Lubotzky said in the 1950s that “Europe and South America, which traditionally were important suppliers of international students, reduced in size” while the numbers from Asia increased more than those from the Middle East, and Africa. [14]

When people first look through songbooks, they look for ones that might be interesting.  Headnotes and titles are the first clues.  It is only later that individuals may look at each song carefully.

Only two of the songs in the Sampler were from Africa and two from the Middle East, while none came from Asia or Latin America.  One African song was a love song from white South Africa [15] and one from Turkey was a round in Turkish. [16]  That left the religious “Kum Ba Yah” and the round “Shalom Chaverim.” [17]

Title
“Come By Here” with “Kum Ba Yah” as the subtitle.  This is a continuation of the change introduced at the Buckeye Workshop in 1955 to make the song’s meaning more obvious and more familiar to individuals who were uncomfortable with nonsense or foreign words. [18]

Credits
Africa (Angola)

Notes on Lyrics
Language: English
Pronunciation: note that pronounced “Koom-bah-yah”
Verses: Kumbaya, crying, singing, praying
Pronoun: someone
Term for Deity: Lord
Special Terms: none

Basic Form: four-verse song
Verse Repetition Pattern: none
Ending: none
Unique Features: none

Notes on Music
Opening Phrase: 1-3-5
Time Signature: 3/4
Tempo: slowly
Key Signature: no flats or sharps

Basic Structure: strophic repetition
Vocal-Accompaniment Dynamics: vocal line only
Ending: none

Notes on Performance
Occasion: songbook created to publicize Cooperative Recreation Service
Cover: treble clef sign in circle at top left; otherwise just table of contents

Color Scheme: cover has brown ink on yellow paper; inside pages use brown ink on cream paper

Plate: made by Jane Keen

Notes on Performers
Rosa Page was born in 1900.  Her great-grandmother had been a slave who married a Creek. [19]  Her grandparents went to church meetings every night that rotated between the Baptist, Methodist, and Christian churches. [20]  Her father directed the local band in Gibson [21] until he joined the church. [22]

A neighbor, who was in a Methodist choir, was the first to teach her how to sing. [23]  Her training was erratic; it included a visit to a minstrel show where Bessie Smith was performing. [24]  A local minister’s daughter got her into a Christian Church college, [25] where she received more training.

After the war, Page moved to Chicago where she married E. C. Welch in 1927. [26]  There she had more training, and was offered a chance to sing at a Nebraska Student Conference of the church. [27]  This began a career as a song leader for large conventions.  She had 101 engagements in 1945. [28]  The first one for SVM may have been in 1952 in Lawrence, Kansas. [29]

In 1953 she went on a world tour [30] that took her to Asia, then the Belgium Congo [31] and Liberia. [32]  Eight years after the Athens meeting, she spent time as a missionary in Nigeria for the Church of the Brethren. [33]  Rather than letting her evangelize, local male missionaries expected to perform to raise money for them. [34]  Although her biography about this period is called “Kum Ba Yah,” it does not mention the song.                

Talbot is discussed in posts for 7 August 2022 and 14 August 2022.

Availability
Book.  “Come By Here/Kum Ba Yah.”  15 in Song Sampler number 1, January 1956.  Delaware, Ohio: Cooperative Recreation Service, Cooperative Song Service, 1956.

End Notes
1.  Frederick Hilborn Talbot.  Letter, 18 October 2016.
2.  Taylor is discussed in the post for 7 March 2021.

3.  “Student Volunteer Movement.”  Wikipedia website.  Moody is discussed in the posts for 17 January 2021 and 24 January 2021.

4.  Harlan Hatcher.  The President’s Report for 1955-1956.  Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan, 1957.  74.

5.  Hatcher.

6.  Rosa Page Welch.  Paraphrased by Shawnee Press.  Letter to Lynn Rohrbough, 14 May 1959.  Copy courtesy of Bruce Greene and World Around Songs.

7.  Lynn Rohrbough.  Letter to Shawnee Press, 4 June 1959.  Uncorrected typed carbon.  Copy courtesy of Bruce Greene and World Around Songs.

8.  “Frederick H. Talbot, 57 M.Div.”  Yale Divinity School Alumni Awards website.
9.  Oma Lou Myers.  Rosa’s Song.  Saint Louis, Missouri: CBP Press, 1984.  11.
10.  Song Sampler.  B.
11.  Song Sampler.  A.

12.  “75 Years of the International Center at the University of Michigan.”  University of Michigan website.

13.  Asher Lubotzky.  “Diplomacy, Diversity, and Dollars: How the Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement Shaped International Student Policy at Indiana University, 1950-1970.”  Indiana University website, 20 August 2018.

14.  Lubotzky.

15.  “Sarie Marais.  South African Folk song from Jan Perewiet; English by Katharine Ferris Rohrbough.  Van Gorcum and Comp. N.V. 1948.  Aan den Brink, Assen, Nederlands.  10 in Song Sampler.

16.  “Rally Song.”  Turkish round from Janet Tobitt.  Yours for a Song.  15 in Song Sampler.

17.  “Shalom Chaverim.”  Palestinian round; English by Augustus D. Zanzig.  16 in Song Sampler.

18.  The Buckeye Workshop version is discussed in the post for 24 July 2022.
19.  Myers.  21.
20.  Myers.  17–18.
21.  Myers.  20.
22.  Myers.  23.
23.  Myers.  18–19.
24.  Myers.  22.

25.  Myers.  27.  The Christian Church is the name of a merged group of denominations founded after the Cane Ridge Revival.  They are discussed in the post for 8 November 2020.

26.  Myers.  33.
27.  Myers.  38.
28.  Myers.  75.
29.  Myers.  91.
30.  Myers.  94.
31.  Myers.  116.
32.  Myers.  124.
33.  Myers.  144.
34.  Myers.  148, 150.

Buckeye Recreation Workshop - Kum Ba Ya (Come By Here)

 

Topic: Kumbaya 1955-1961
The Buckeye Recreation Workshop is the second place from whence “Kumbaya” could have spread before Lynn Rohrbough began publicizing the song.

John Blocher transcribed the song from the singing of Kathryn Thompson Good, [1] probably in the fall of 1954 for a songbook published on 15 March 1955. [2]  I asked Blocher if Good ever took her young children to the family evenings in Delaware, Ohio, that are mentioned in the post for 22 May 2022.  He, in turn, asked them what they remembered from their childhoods.  Blocher wrote back:

“None of the three surviving Goods remember going there as a family, but they distinctly remember Tommy’s activities on the Board of BRW.” [3]

While this suggests a high probability that she heard the song at the workshop, it is not proof.  More suggestive evidence come from the papers saved by a workshop board member from the 1955 workshop held in Urbana, Ohio, from April 17 to April 23.  Most items were handouts from sessions, but there was no schedule of events.  It also included a roster and group photograph.

Some of the handouts look like they were prepared to be used during sessions.  A few were created during the workshop.  They all were made from stencils.

Good helped write one that chronicled the afternoon group sessions.  As mentioned in the post for 3 October 2021, the first workshops featured afternoon teas with short lectures.  Lynn Rohrbough discussed games on Monday.  Tom Bruce spoke on Wednesday. [4]

The most important tea occurred on Thursday when “our own Gus Zanzig, who most interestingly and graciously presented new songs, and taught us several.  He pointed out the value of different types of songs, and told us the origins of several.  Songs that can be acted out and most enjoyable and play a part all their very own.” [5]

A sheet titled “Song Leading” suggests he may have given a talk on that subject. [6]  Usually, such handouts include instructions or hints for directing group session.  If those existed, they disappeared.  Instead, the first three attached pages featured hand-written transcriptions of music with typed texts.  One had been used during a Thursday event, [7] and another included a parody “contributed by Warren Bright.” [8]

The inclusion of material that emerged during the workshop suggests these pages were produced to satisfy requests from attendees.  The fourth page has the same character.   It is handwritten, and includes fragments that Zanzig might have mentioned in his talk: an introduction to “Good News,” simple parts for “Walking at Night,” and a descant for the chorus of “Down the River.”

The last page is the most important.  It is a handwritten version of “Kum Ba Ya.”  The stencil is so uneven, it could not have been produced by a professional like Jane Keen. [9]  However, the treble clef signs are the same on all five pages.  The handwriting varies some from that on the previous page, but has enough similarities to suggest they two were done by the same person.

The unknown is why the song was included.  Someone who attended the workshop may have inquired about something remembered from the previous year, or Good may have made an announcement about her camp’s new songster.  In the process she may have sung or otherwise mentioned it included a song they might remember.

The fact “Kum Ba Yah” was included may be the first signal people liked the song.  The stenciled version also implies some changes that were made to fit the audience.  Instead of coming from Angola, this headnote says it is an “African spiritual.”  Rohrbough’s version did not mention “come by here,” but this version does.  This hints that, from the beginning, some were uncomfortable with unknown or foreign words.

Notes on Lyrics
The text is identical with the version by Blocher that was issued 33 days before the start of this workshop.  Blocher’s version is reproduced in the post for 29 May 2022.

Notes on Music
The melody is the same as Blocher’s version.  Whoever made the stencil had to have seen a copy of Indianola Sings or a proof sheet for the song that Rohrbough could have produced if asked.

The most important change was the addition of chords, which were associated with the key of C, which has no flats or sharps.  For some reason, the autographer indicated it had one flat.  This idiosyncrasy appears with some of the other songs in the “Song Leading” set.  The tempo marking also has been dropped.

Notes on Performers
Augustus D. Zanzig’s name appears in the list of references in the column at the right.  At this time, he was associated with the Brookline Music School in Massachusetts, [10] and versifying translations of international songs as a part-time consultant to CRS. [11]

The Buckeye Recreation Workshop is discussed in the post for 3 October 2021.  In 1955, 123 individuals are listed in the workshop roster, excluding outside speakers, vendors, and people from out of state. [12]  All but one in the group photograph was white.  The dark-skinned young man in the back row might have been from Africa. [13]  His name gave no clues, and he attended from Ohio State.  Rohrbough introduced two Ohio Wesleyan University students from what was then the Gold Coast as part of his discussion of the game ADI. [14]

Of the 123 attendees, 81, or more than 65% were women.  This should not be surprising since the workshop lasted for seven days.  Most who came had jobs that were related to youth recreation.  More than 61% were 4-H leaders or employees of county agricultural extension offices or farm groups like the Grange.  Again, this would be expected since the group grew out of the extension activities of Tom mentioned in the post 3 October 2021.

Many of the remaining people were associated with churches (17%), with the majority of those Methodists.  A few were interested in folk or square dancing, [15] while twelve were involved with the Girl Scouts (5), Boy Scouts (2), Camp Fire Girls (2), YWCA (2), or DeMolay (1). [16]

The home addresses of the 123 gives some sense of the geographic reach of CRS, and the potential areas were “Kumbaya” subsequently might have been taught.  In the map below, black locations represent counties with one to three attendees, while red represents counties with more.  Often friends, or couples, especially ministers and their wives, came together.

Ohio was settled from three directions in the nineteen century.  Some came along the Lake Erie, especially after the Erie Canal was opened in 1825.  Later, immigrants were brought to factories along the lake’s shore.  4-H and county extension offices were organized to serve rural area; urban 4-H did not yet exist. [17]  Places like Toledo, Cleveland, and Akron sent no representatives, but Lorain and Sandusky did.

The second entry point was the Ohio River.  People often came from the south.  Except for Cincinnati, which saw a sizable influx of Germans in the middle-19th century, few came to the Workshop from counties that bordered Kentucky.

The third route was the National Road, which stretched from Wheeling, West Virginia, through Columbus to Richmond, Indiana, by 1839. [18]  Most of the migrants came from or through Pennsylvania.  That is roughly the path of the red dots on the map.

No one came from northwestern Ohio, which included Wyandot County mentioned in the post for 17 July 2022.  The land there generally was less good than the prairie lands in the middle of the state.  Good’s husband wrote his master’s thesis on part of the Great Black Swamp that dominated that part of the state. [19]

Graphics
1.  “Kum Ba Ya.”  5 in A. D. Zanzig.  “Song Leading.”  Buckeye Recreation Workshop, 1955, papers.

2.  Base map:  United States Census Bureau.  Outline Map of Counties.  Copy uploaded to Wikimedia Commons website by Abe Suleiman uploaded on 7 February 2010.

End Notes
Copies of papers from the eleventh annual Buckeye Recreation Workshop, Urbana, Ohio, 17 April to 23 April 1955 provided by a member of the current board of the workshop.

1.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 5 May 2016.
2.  Lynn Rohrbough.  Letter to Shawnee Press, 16 February 1959.

3.  John Blocher, Jr.  Letter, 30 June 2016.  The use of “surviving” is odd, since four of the Goods’ children were alive.  However, one had moved away, and may not have been part of the family discussion provoked by Blocher.  The fourth child, Bruce Good, is discussed in the post for 17 October 2021.  “BRW” is the Buckeye Workshop.

4.  Helen Stanfeld and Tommy Good.  “Teas.”  Buckeye Recreation Workshop, 1955, papers.  Stanfeld was with the extension office in Batavia and active in her church. [20]  Tommy was Good’s nickname.

5.  Stanfeld and Good.
6.  Zanzig, Song Leading.

7.  “Walking Together” was “used for Signature Thursday by Paul Whipple.” [21]  He was a Methodist minister from Hartford, Ohio. [22]

8.  Bright was a Methodist minister from the church that was sponsoring the event in Urbana, Ohio. [23]

9.  Keen produced stencils for the Northland Recreation Laboratory in the 1940s, before she began working for Rohrbough.  She is discussed in the posts 24 April 2022 and 8 May 2022.  This implies she was not present at the workshop, and, thus, probably was not a possible source for the notes mentioned in the post for 29 May 2022.

10.  “Buckeye Recreation Workshop - 1955” list of attendees.  Workshop papers.

11.  Augustus D. Zanzig.  Letter to Larry Nial Holcomb, 1 May 1972.  Cited by Holcomb in “A History of the Cooperative Recreation Service.”  PhD dissertation.  University of Michigan, 1972.  135.

12.  Workshop roster for 1955.

13.  Group photograph included between the Workshop cover page and the roster.  Buckeye Recreation Workshop papers, 1955.

14.  Stanfeld and Good.  The Gold Coast is now Ghana.

15.  Philip Maxwell came from the Oglebay Institute in Wheeling, West Virginia.  It is discussed in the post for 22 May 2022.  The fact someone came from Oglebay may suggest Mary Lea Bailey might have stopped by to visit without registering.  If she did this every year, she could be a source for the added notes to the CRS version of “Kum Ba Yah.”  She is discussed in the post for 22 May 2022.

16.  DeMolay is an organization for high-school-aged boys associated with the Masons. [24]  When I went to county fairs in Calhoun County, Michigan, in the early 1960s, older women had a food tent to provide inexpensive meals to individuals camping out in the barns with their livestock.

17.  The post for 3 October 2021 has a little on the history of the organizations.
18.  “National Road.”  Wikipedia website.

19.  E. E. Good.  “A History of the Natural Resources of Van Wert County.”  MA thesis.  Ohio State University, 1947.  He published some of the results in E. E. Good.  “The Original Vegetation of Van Vert County, Ohio.”  The Ohio Journal of Science 61(3)155–160:May 1961. [25]  He is mentioned in the post for 10 October 2021.

20.  Workshop roster for 1955.
21.  Zanzig, Song Leading.
22.  Workshop roster for 1955.
23.  Workshop roster for 1955.
24.  “DeMolay International.”  Wikipedia website.

25.  Thomas M. Stockdale and John F. Disinger.  “Ernest Eugene Good.”  Ohio Journal of Science 94(5):164–165:December 1994.

Indianola - Cumbaya

 Topic: Kumbaya 1955-1961
“Kumbaya” spread as a folk song before Joan Baez released her commercial recording in September 1962. [1]  In its most pure form, folk songs move from individual to individual.  In the process of oral transmission from place to place and over time changes are introduced into texts and tunes. [2]

Very often the primary versions are derived from print, but the same kinds of changes occur once people do not have access to the original sources.  The amount of variation depends upon the nature of the song and on institutional mores.  Some songs have structural traits that inhibit modifications, while some layers of society are more concerned with “correctness” than others.

“Kumbaya” first was published in a songbook produced for Camp Indianola on 15 March 1955 by Cooperative Recreation Service (CRS).  A number of CRS customers, especially churches, ordered enough copies of songbooks to distribute them to every camper as souvenirs.  These, more than likely, were used in formal settings like vespers, rather than during sings after meals.  Correctness was expected in the one setting, but not in the other.

Some customers of Lynn Rohrbough’s business, like the Camp Fire Girls, Girl Scouts, and YWCA, used songbooks to raise money.  The organizations sold copies that were purchased by leaders, who might, in turn, teach songs from them.  Girls were expected to remember them.

Indianola was organized by the Indianola Methodist Church, located near the campus of Ohio State University in Columbus.  By the 1950s, the rural site was used as a family camp. [3]  One of the editors of Indianola Sings, John Blocher, Jr., remembered they used “the books after they became available, although it was soon learned by heart.” [4]  They did not order a second printing. [5]

Historically, folklorists have inferred the existence of oral transmission when they have had enough variants to make comparisons.  This was the method used by Francis James Child in the first folk-song collection important in the United States.  He drew upon collections made in England. [6]

Indianola probably had a core group of members, like the Blochers, who returned year after year, and others who came for a week or two.  It probably was not the only camp some children attended.  Both the Camp Fire Girls and Girls Scouts in Columbus had residential summer camps that had some prestige.

Judging from some personal songbooks made by individuals who were associated with Ken-Jockety, the song moved from Indianola to the Girl Scout camp through oral transmission in the 1950s and stayed in tradition there into the 1970s.  Ann transcribed  it as “Cumbayah” in a collection she kept in a looseleaf binder she could use with her guitar.  Each song was typed on a separate page.  Joyce used “Cum baya.”  She wrote her songs down on index cards she could use when she leading a song.

The reason the transcriptions identify Indianola as the source, rather than CRS, is that Blocher said he never heard the first syllable pronounced as if it rhymed with “loom or doom.”  They sang it as though it rhymed with “comb” [7] or the beginning of the Latin “cum sancto spiritu.” [8]

As mentioned in the post for 29 May 2022, someone added the notes about the word’s pronunciation as “koom-bah-yah” after he submitted his manuscript. [9]  He asked CRS to remove the footnote. [10]  In February 1959, Rohrbough wrote, “we have since found the word should be pronounced ‘cum’ instead of ‘koom’ and have corrected our plates.” [11]  He did not revise the pronunciation note, but removed it entirely. [12]

The spelling of “Kumbaya” came from the lines in the text, not the title “Kum Ba Yah.”  Even people who learned the song orally, wrote it down with the hard “k” consonant, not the softer “c.”  I’ve seen it spelled it “kum bai ya” [13] and “kum bye yah,” [14] but the “cum” pronunciation seems to have been limited to the sphere of influence of the Columbus Girl Scout council. [15]

In 2016, a woman at Baldwin Wallace University was interviewing Rohrbough for an oral history project.  He wrote me:

“As an experiment, before telling her the story, I had [Helen], BW staff, sing the version of Kum Ba Yah she learned.  Without my prompting, she sang it in 3/4 time, Kum = ‘comb’.” [16]

I later contacted Helen, who confirmed the meeting.  She wrote me she didn’t remember exactly when she learned “Kumbaya.”  She thought it was “around the middle ’50s I would have been in Girl Scouts and I think it would have been at a GS day camp that I learned ‘Kumbaya’.” [17]  She then was living in Glenshaw, Pennsylvania, a suburb north of Pittsburgh. [18]  She added, “I don’t recall that we had a songbook but I’m guessing that one of our leaders knew the song and taught it to us.” [19]

The only other song sheets I’ve seen with “Cum by ya” were collected Larry, who was the 4-H agent in Wyandot County, Ohio, in 1974.  He kept every handout he was ever given, but did not note the sources.  One with “Cum by ya” included fourteen texts that were a mix of 4-H songs, fun songs like the “prune song,” and slower ones like “I love the mountains.”  The other had six spirituals or church camp songs like “Do Lord.”

Notes on Lyrics
Pronunciation: “Cum” for first syllable

Verses: None of the versions from Ann, Joyce, or Larry are exactly like that published by Rohrbough. Ann and Larry used the verse order introduced in 1968 by Tommy Leonetti. [20]  Joyce wrote the verses as “crying,” “singing,” “praying,” and “sleeping,” but said the verses had an obvious progression from “crying” to “praying” to “singing.”

Basic Form: As near as one can tell from written texts, none repeated “cumbaya” as a burden between verses, although Ann began and ended with “cumbaya” and sang “come by here” as the next-to-last verse.  Blocher said they sang “it only as a four-verse song.” [21]

Notes on Music
Guitar Chords: Ann indicated the chords she used were G C D7 D

Notes on Performers
The editors of Indianola Sings were John Blocher, Jr., and Kathryn Thompson Good.  Their photographs appear on the Photos K tab, and she is profiled in the post for 10 October 2022.  He will discussed in a future post.

Ken-Jockey still exists as one of the camps managed by Girl Scouts of Ohio’s Heartland Council.  In the 1970s, it was part of the Seal of Ohio Council headquartered in Columbus.

Ann attended one Michigan Girl Scout camp (Camp o’ the Hills) from 1963 until 1970 when her family moved.  In 1976, she was the business manager and assistant director at Ken-Jockety.  She since has worked as a copy editor, and written books on science.  One place she lived is near the coast in McIntosh County, Georgia, where early versions of “Come by Here” were collected by Robert Winslow Gordon. [22]

Joyce’s background was more varied.  As a child in Michigan, she had attended a Girl Scout camp (Fort Hill), a YWCA one (Talahi), and a Congregational church one (Pilgrim Haven).  In 1957 and 1959, she was the song leader at Kitanniwa, the Camp Fire Girls’ camp I attended.   She married and moved to Ohio where she had been to Ken-Jockety in the 1970s before I interviewed her in 1974.  She can play piano and sing harmony.  Recently, she has served as discussion leader for the Miriam Circle Bible Study group in her local Evangelical Lutheran church.

Availability
Songbook.  “Come By Here”/“Kum Ba Yah.”  Indianola Sings, edited by Kathryn Thompson Good and John Blocher, Jr. for Camp Indianola, sponsored by the Indianola Methodist Church, Columbus, Ohio.  Delaware, Ohio: Cooperative Recreation Service, 18 March 1955.  38.  It is reproduced in the post for 29 May 2022.

End Notes
I collected information on camp songs in the 1970s.  That was so many years ago, I am not using people’s last names because their attitudes toward publicity may have changed since then.  Some have died, changed their names, or otherwise become impossible to contact for permission to use their names on the internet.

1.  Joan Baez’s version is discussed in the post for 9 October 2017.

2.  My source for this concept is Louise Pound.  “Introduction.”  xii–xxxvi in American Ballads and Songs.  New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922.  xii–xvi.  She is mentioned briefly in the posts for 12 May 2019 and 27 February 2022.

3.  The post for 10 October 2021 traces the history of the camp.
4.  John Blocher, Jr.  Letter, 2 July 2016.

5.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 26 July 2017.  “I remember only one order of song books, containing the score I scanned with a copy for you.  If another (revised) printing had been made when I was in the loop, I think I would have kept a copy.  The one printing may have been enough to supply the need over the few years of activity involved.”

6.  Francis James Child.  The English and Scottish Popular Ballads.  Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, ten volumes, 1882–1898.  The importance of this collection is described in the post for 6 February 2019.  It is mentioned briefly in the post for 22 December 2019.

7.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 16 June 2016.
8.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 21 June 2016.
9.  The origins of the pronunciation will be discussed in a future post.
10.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 25 June 2016.
11.  Lynn Rohrbough.  Letter to Shawnee Press, 16 February 1959.
12.  Details will appear in a future post.

13.  Songbook from Melacoma, Camp Fire Girls camp sponsored by Cascade Council, Vancouver, Washington.  Summer 1974.

14.  Songbook from Adahi, Camp Fire Girls camp sponsored by the Reading, Pennsylvania, council.  Received, summer 1974.

15.  “Cum” also appears in England.  Those versions will be discussed in a later post.
16.  John Blocher, Jr.  Email, 21 June 2016.
17.  Helen.  Email, 28 October 2020, 1:24 pm.
18.  Helen.  Email, 28 October 2020, 4:39 pm.
19.  Helen.  Email, 28 October 2020, 1:24 pm.
20.  Tommy Leonetti’s version is discussed in the post for 12 April 2020.
21.  John Blocher, Jr.  Letter, 2 July 2016.

22.  The version by Henry Wylly is discussed in the post for 2 June 2019.  The one by Floyd Thorpe is discussed in the post for 16 June 2019.

John Colleton - Carolina Proprietor

Topic: Gullah History - Early Legends
The post for 3 July 2022 showed few facts have been established about John Colleton.  His name does not appear in the histories of the Civil War in Devon, [1] nor in the histories of Barbados. [2]  Even biographical details are scant: his wife, Katherine Amey, died in 1646 during the siege of Exeter, [3] leaving six children ranging in age from one to ten years. [4]  His youngest son, James was born two years later in 1648. [5]

When facts are few, people make inferences based on what they know of an historical period or about human nature.  Historians are careful to use words like “probably” to separate their theories from their data.  Over time, those caveats get lost and speculation becomes fact, and sometimes legend.

The earliest histories of South Carolina described the clauses of the governing charter in detail, but only named the proprietors in the order they appeared in the grant.  In 1779, Alexander Hewat thought “England began to recognize her claim to a large territory” and that the eight proprietors “being apprized of the excellent soil of this country, united and formed a project for planting a colony in it.” [6]

After the Revolution, David Ramsay wrote a history that followed Hewat.  He cited a voyage by Cabot as the source for England’s rights to Carolina, then described the charter and listed the proprietors. [7]  They did not appear again by name.

The first to profile the proprietors was William James Rivers in 1856.  His criteria seems to have been loyalty to Charles II.  He listed Edward Hyde, George Monck, and George Cateret, then mentioned Anthony Ashley Cooper as the author of the colony’s first constitution. [8]  Next, he named Colleton ahead of the other more senior men because he

“had been an active partisan of royalty, and impoverished himself by his uncalculating zeal in its cause.  After the success of the Parliamentary forces he retired to Barbadoes till the restoration of the king, when he returned to England and received the dignity of baronet.” [9]

His primary source was Burke’s reference tome on extinct English titles.  It used the phrase “active partisan of royalty” and “retire to Barbados.” [10]  Burke’s source for the second probably was a history of the Civil War written by Hyde.  The supporter of Charles I did not name individuals, but generalized:

“The Barbardoes, which was much the richest plantation, was principally inhabited by men who had retired thither only to be quiet, and to be free from the noise and oppressions in England.” [11]

Burke also drew material from William Bentham’s History of the English Baronets. [12]  The Anglican chaplain [13] seems to have obtain his material from Colleton’s great-great-grandson. [14]  Much of the information, like being a “captain of the foot and had a commission from John Berkley,” is the sort of amalgam that can develop in families.  John Berkeley, indeed, did say Colleton “had raised and commanded a regiment under me,” [15] but the commission and rank came from Colleton’s time in Barbados. [16]

Parts of Burke’s description were repeated by Edward McCrady in 1897 [17] and David Duncan Wallace in 1934. [18]  However, Wallace also was borrowing an idea introduced by John Thomas in 1930.  The latter was the first to discuss the influence on Barbados in South Carolina history and the first to say:

“a planter of Barbados, Sir John Colleton, who first suggested to Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Ashley) that they, with associates, obtain a grant to this “rich and fertile Province of Carolina” from Charles II.” [19]

Wallace refers to the theory with the appropriate caveats: “If, as is reported, the idea of the Carolina charter originated with him.” [20]  Charles Andrews was equally cautious in 1939 when he claimed Colleton “probably originated the idea of obtaining a grant of land.” [21]
Thirty years later, Eugene Sirmans wrote a political history that emphasized the role of men from Barbados.  He baldly asserted “Sir John Colleton, who took the initiative in securing the Carolina charters.” [22]

Sirmans is the likely source for Richard Dunn. [23]  Dunn, in turn, is the probable source for Richard Waterhouse [24] and Walter Edgar. [25]  It wasn’t until 2004, that Lou Roper noted that “historians have argued, without supplying much in the way of evidence, that the impetus for colonizing Carolina came from Barbados.” [26]

Views of the early history of South Carolina have changed with experience.  Hewat and Ramsay were writing at the time of the American Revolution.  They accepted a top-down view of influence, and believed the colony’s political conflicts were a continuation of the English Civil War.  It just happened the Puritans were sent from England by the proprietors and the Cavaliers came from Barbados of their own accord. [27]

The role of South Carolina in precipitating the American Civil War created a different conundrum for historians. The first part, the need to explain why it was different, could be attributed to early settlers from Barbados. [28]  The second part, how they exerted their influence, may be ascribed to a belief in entrepreneurship and a preference for bottom-up views of change.

Andrews created the first scenario that explained how an underling like Colleton was able to obtain a charter.  He hypothesized that he was motivated by the reinstatement of Francis Willoughby as governor of Barbados.  He met with Cooper and William Berkeley, who both had overseas investments.  They, then, used their contacts to persuade men with influence to grant them a charter. [29]

The thrust of his argument may be valid, but the details are confused.  It was Willoughby’s claim to Hay’s proprietorship that was the issue. [30]  Charles confirmed the grant in 1660.  Willoughby appointed Walrond as governor in August 1660.  Willoughby became governor when Charles cancelled the proprietorship and assumed control in 1663. [31]

Walrond’s behavior in the 1650s, when he confiscated estates of men who opposed him, would certainly have aroused concerns among planters who had not supported him. [32]  In 1660, he arrested Modyford on charges of treason. [33]  Since Colleton had been one of the men responsible for Walrond’s banishment in 1652, [34] he would have had reason to leave.

Sirmans created a second rationale that “like so many other royalists” Colleton “set out for London to claim his reward.”  He contacted John Berkeley, who presented a memorial to Charles II that resulted in Colleton’s appointment to the Council for Foreign Plantations, his knighthood, and, ultimately, his share of the Carolina patent. [35]

Some evidence for this can be presented, since John Berkeley did write a certification of Colleton’s loyalty.  He noted Colleton had not been reimbursed for the costs of raising a regiment and supplying ammunition.  More important, he “gave credit, and staid long for considerable sums yet unpaid, of many of them, whereby a good sum must be due to him.” [36]  It’s very likely these loans were to Berkeley directly as the governor of Exeter, [37] and that Colleton had papers showing Berkeley was in debt to him.

Colleton may have been included in the group who received that charter for a very mundane reason.  The group of potential proprietors had learned from their first attempt to colonize Africa that someone had to do the routine work, [38] and that it was best if that person could be trusted with money.  Berkeley would have learned in Exeter that Colleton could be relied upon, and also known he needed provide an incentive for Colleton take on some responsibilities.  In the first meeting of the proprietors after the charter was granted, the named Colleton their cash keeper. [39]

None of these theories take into account the most usual reason men returned to England.  Many went to Barbados to make enough money to return home in an improved position.  Most of the indentured servants were single, while a number of the planters left their wives and children in England. [40]  Since the yellow fever epidemic of 1647, [41] the island had a reputation for being unhealthy.

There is no way of knowing if the 52-year-old Colleton was concerned about children he hadn’t seen in ten years, or if his own experience of losing his father as an adolescent made him indifferent.  Views of families have changed since 1660.  All J. E. Buchanan could discover about Colleton’s domestic affairs is that:

“He left Barbados so quickly after the Restoration he may not have been accompanied by his children.  He lived near the Church of St Giles from 1660-5 when he moved to St Martin-in-the-Fields.” [42]

Colleton died in 1667. [43]  His oldest son, Peter, inherited the proprietorship [44] and is the one who had been taking an active part in promoting the Carolina colony since the charter was issued in 1663. [45]

End Notes
I am using the given names of proprietors, not the changing titles they assumed in their careers.  The idea of reviewing the histories of South Carolina in chronological order came from an article by Kinloch Bull.  “Barbadian Settlers in Early Carolina: Historigraphical Notes.”  The South Carolina Historical Magazine 96(4):329–339:October 1995.

1.  Collecton’s name does not appear in histories by Eugene Andriette [46] and Mark Stoyle. [47]  As indicated in the post for 3 July 2022, one has to look into town records.

2.  The only history of Barbados I’ve seen that mentions Colleton is N. Darnell Davis.  Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados.  Georgetown, British Guiana: Argosy Press, 1887.  He could be mentioned by others; I have not done exhaustive bibliography on the history of the island.

3.  “Katheryne Amye.”  Geni website; last updated 19 November 2014.

4.  J. E. Buchanan.  “The Colleton Family and the Early History of South Carolina and Barbados 1646-1775.”  PhD dissertation.  University of Edinburgh, 1989.  13.

5.  Buchanan.  3.

6.  Alexander Hewatt.  An Historical Account Of The Rise And Progress Of The Colonies Of South Carolina And Georgia.  London: A. Donaldson, 1779.  Volume 1, chapter 2, section “The first proprietors and their charter.”  Hewat is discussed in the post for 12 June 2022.

7.  David Ramsey.  The History of South-Carolina.  Charleston, South Carolina: David Longworth, 1809.  Reprinted as Ramsay’s History of South Carolina.  Newberry, South Carolina: W. J. Duffie, 1858.  1:14.

8.  Wm. Jas. Rivers.  A Sketch of the History of South Carolina.  Charleston, South Carolina: McCarter and Company, 1856. 63.  Rivers is discussed in the post for 12 June 2022.

9.  Rivers.  64.

10.  John Burke and Bernard Burke.  A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Extinct and Dormant Baronetcies of England, Ireland and Scotland.  London: J. R. Smith, 1844.

11.  Edward Hyde.  The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England, edited by William Warburton.  Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1826.  6:610.  Quoted by Buchanan.  Emphasis added.

12.  William Betham.  “Colleton of London.”  2:209–211 in The Baronetage of England.  Ipswich, UK: Burrell and Bransby, 1802.

13.  John Thomas Gilbert.  “Betham, William (1749-1839).”  4:423–424 in Dictionary of National Biography, edited by Leslie Stephan.  London: Smith, Elder and Company, 1885.

14.  Betham quotes a letter from Sir John Colleton, the fourth Baronet, to the Earl of Rochford, on page 210.  This John Colleton was born in 1731, [48] 64 years after our John died.

15.  Jn. Berkeley.  “These are humbly to certify your sacred Majesty,” 19 October 1660.  Reprinted by Betham.  210.

16.  Colleton would have been an officer in the militia in Barbados.  Darnel Davis referred to him as “Colonel Colleton” in the 1652 negotiations with George Aysecue. [49]  His later commission to raise a regiment for Oliver Cromwell’s attack on Spanish possessions in the Caribbean is mentioned in the post for 3 July 2022.

17.  Edward McCrady.  The History of South Carolina under the Proprietary Government, 1670-1719.  New York: The Macmillan Company, 1897.  63.

18.  David Duncan Wallace.  The History of South Carolina.  New York: American Historical Society, 1934.  1:60.

19.  Jno. P. Thomas, Jr.  “The Barbadians in Early South Carolina.”  The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 31(2):75–92:April 1930.  78.  Emphasis added.  Thomas is discussed in the post for 5 June 2022.

20.  Wallace.  60.  Emphasis added.

21.  Charles M. Andrews.  The Colonial Period of American History: The Settlements III.  New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937.  183.  Emphasis added.  Andrews is introduced in the post for 26 June 2022.

22.  M. Eugene Sirmans.  Colonial South Carolina: A Political History 1663–1764.  Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1966.  4.  Emphasis added.

23.  Richard S. Dunn.  Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713.  Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972.  112.  “It was a Barbados planter, Sir John Colleton, who first organized the proprietary group that received a royal charter from Charles II in 1663.”  Emphasis added.  Dunn is discussed in the post for 19 June 2022.

24.  Richard Waterhouse.  “England, the Caribbean, and the Settlement of Carolina.”  Journal of American Studies 9(3):259–281:December 1975.  263.  “The idea of obtaining the charter originated in the mind of that prominent Barbadian, Sir John Colleton.”  Emphasis added.

25.  Walter Edgar.  South Carolina.  Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.  39.  “It is probable that Colleton turned first to his cousin and his old friend, Lord Berkeley, for assistance with his scheme for a colony between Virginia and Spanish Florida.”  Emphasis added.

26.  L. H. Roper.  Conceiving Carolina: Proprietors, Planters, and Plots, 1662–1729.  New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.  15.

27.  Hewatt.  Volume 1, chapter 2, section “Variances break out in the colony.”

Ramsay. 20.  He quoted much of Hewat without attribution, but added slightly different conclusions. [50]  As mentioned in the post for 26 June 2022, Hewat supported the King George, and Ramsay the Revolution.

28.  This transference of responsibility is discussed in the post for 5 June 2022.
29.  Andrews.  184–186.

30.  Robert M. Bliss has good description of the events along with the motives of planters, merchants, and creditors of James Hay, and Charles II in Revolution and Empire.  Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993.  142–145.

31.  “List of governors of Barbados.”  Wikipedia website.
32.  For more on Walrond, see the post for 17 April 2022.
33.  Bliss. 144.
34.  See the post for 3 July 2022 for more on Colleton and Walrond.
35.  Sirmans.  4.
36.  Berkeley.
37.  Berkley’s role in Exeter is discussed in the posts for 3 April 2022 and 3 July 2022.

38.  George Frederick Zook.  “The Royal Adventurers in England.”  The Journal of Negro History 4(2):143–162:April 1919.  147–148.  Some of the history of the African enterprise is mentioned in the post for 26 June 2022.

39.  Minutes of a meeting of the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, 23 May 1663.  Colonial Office 5/286/1.  Cited by Roper.  166, note 48.

40.  Dunn.  253.  “Many of the planters, merchants, managers, and overseers who operated the sugar industry were young bachelors or married men who left their wives and children in England.”

41.  The yellow fever epidemic is discussed in the post for 27 March 2022.

42.  Buchanan.  43.  He thinks Colleton took Peter with him when he first went to Barbados, [51] but makes no mention of his second son, Thomas until 1663 when Thomas is told to take the charter to Barbados. [52]

43.  Buchanan.  77.
44.  Buchanan.  79.

45.  Peter H. Wood.  Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carlina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion.  New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1974.  14.  “the most direct initiative for colonization came from crowded Barbados.  Peter Colleton (John’s son) and his influential relative, Sir Thomas Modyford, returned there from London to promote the proprietary scheme.”

46.  Eugene A. Andriette.  Devon and Exeter in the Civil War.  Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles, 1971.

47.  Mark Stoyle.  Loyalty and Locality: Popular Allegiance in Devon during the English Civil War.  Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1994.

48.  Buchanan.  9.
49.  Davis.  239, 246.

50.  Ramsy’s habit of plagiarism is mentioned by the Wikipedia article “Alexander Hewat.”  It cited two sources.

Publications of the Southern History Association (Vol. 2).  Southern History Association.  26 February – 26 October 1898.  144.  I could not identify this further.

Peter George Mode.  Source Book and Bibliographical Guide for American Church History.  Menasha Wisconsin: George Banta Publishing Company, 1921.  188.

51.  Buchanan.  22.
52.  Buchanan.  55.

John Colleton - Exeter Merchant

Topic: Gullah History - Early Legends
John Colleton is the mystery man in the list of proprietors of the Carolina land grant.  He played only a minor role in the English Civil War, acted as a mediator in the early conflicts on Barbados, and didn’t receive his knighthood until 1661, a year after the more important were granted.

He was not one of the subordinates responsible for executing the policies of Charles II.  At most, he was from the city (Exeter) and county (Devon) of one of the more important, George Monck.  Some have taken a letter Monck wrote to the governor of Barbados that “his own cousins Modyford and Peter Colleton,” son of John, were going “to promote the Carolina plantation” [1] to mean a kinship relation existed like that between John and William Berkeley. [2]

Neither J. E. Buchanan, a Colleton descendant, [3] nor I have found any evidence of familial ties in the admittedly sparse genealogies that have been posted to the internet.  In addition, the men came from different parts of Devon, which, in general, was an area so rugged in places, rivers replaced roads as transportation. [4]  This directed communication to the north and south coasts, not between communities.  Only the gentry went to London, and they spent more time there than in the Devon. [5]

More important, Monck came from a distinctly different social class than Colleton.  His family, then le Moyney, lived on the north side of the county at Potheridge from at least 1287.  His father was merchant with investments in land [6] who married the daughter of a wealthy Exeter tin merchant. [7]  George Smith may have acquired status, but Monck’s father didn’t see much of the money.  By the age of sixteen, Monck was in the army. [8]

Colleton’s father, Peter, established a family pedigree in 1620. [9]  Records went back to his great-grandfather who married Margaret Bury of Coleton in 1485.  That property, which was owned by the Cole family in the 1370s, had passed to the Burys in the 1390s. [10]  It was located on the north-flowing Taw river.

A careful reading suggests that Colleton’s family took their name from the estate where they lived, and rose when Henry Coleton married Margaret Berry.  A mysterious illness had killed 443 in Tiverton the previous fall.  Tiverton was about twenty miles to the east, but sweating sickness spread when Henry VII’s troops were moving through in 1485 before and after the Battle of Bosworth [11] that ended the War of the Roses.  It is only speculation that the possible death of eligible young men led to this marriage.

It is more likely Monck used the term “cousin” to refer to people he knew in the same way Charles II used it to refer to Edward Hyde and Monck in the charter for South Carolina quoted in the post for 26 June 2020.  Hyde was an in-law: his daughter Anne was married to Charles’ brother James, [12] but Monck was no relation.  It is unlikely Monck even remembered Colleton from the Civil War, although they may have met.

Colleton remained in the hands of the Bury family. [13]  It appears Henry’s son, John’s grandfather Thomas, moved to Exeter where John’s father, Peter, was born in 1556.  That was the same year the merchant’s guild received its first charter. [14]  Peter married the daughter of Henry Hull. [15]  Hull was active in the guild, being elected bailiff for the first time in 1581 and mayor in 1605 when Peter was his bailiff. [16]

As mentioned in the post for 3 April 2022, the offices of mayor, sheriff, and bailiff rotated among members of the merchant’s guild.  Thomas Modyford’s father was bailiff in 1602 and 1612, Thomas Amy in 1608 and 1616, and Hugh Crocker in 1624.  Modyford’s father was sheriff in 1613, Amy in 1617, and Peter Colleton in 1618. [17]

Whatever training John might have enjoyed from this network of merchants ended in 1622 when his father died.  He was fourteen years old, and his older brother only fifteen. His maternal grandfather was close to seventy years old; [18] the activities of his mother’s brother are unknown. [19]  The oldest man in the family may have been his sister’s husband, Hugh Crocker, who then would have been twenty-six. [20]  No one has reported what John was doing in the years when he might have been apprenticed to a merchant to learn the trade.

John became a freeman in Exeter when he was twenty-six years old, and married Katherine Amy the same year, 1634. [21]  She probably was the daughter of Thomas Amy. [22]  Colleton was acquiring property in Exeter by 1641. [23]

His name first appears in the public record soon after the Civil War began in England when he and Crocker “withdrew from civic life” in August 1642, leaving the city government in the hands of Puritans. [24]  Forces supporting Charles I sieged, then conquered the city in September 1643. [25]  John Berkeley was appointed governor. [26]

In 1645, Colleton became the first bailiff. [27]  In July, Berkeley issued warrants to recruit men for the Royalist army. [28]  Colleton would have been responsible for executing them.  The blockade of Exeter by the New Model Army began in October, [29] and ended with the city’s surrender in December.  The Receiver General, which would have been Colleton, was displaced for loyalty. [30]

The rents from his properties were sequestered. [31]  In January 1647, Colleton settled with the House of Commons for 244 pounds, which was 10% of his calculated worth.  His annual real estate income was 133 pounds.  His personal estate was set at 4,932 pounds, but his debt obligations were 4,164, for a net of 758 pounds. [32]  Since the usual fine was the value of three year’s income, [33] a 10% levy implies he was considered a serious offender.

Seven months later, Colleton bought a ninety-acre plantation on the north end of Barbados from a man in Cornwall.  Samuel Rolleston apparently managed it for him. [34]  A year or so later, in August 1648, he received permission to visit Calais, [35] and in 1650 permission to go to Holland. [36]  Soon after he left with his son Peter for Barbados. [37]

As mentioned in the post for 3 April 2022, he arrived on the island at the same time as Francis Willoughby, who had been appointed governor by Charles in his role of presumed heir to the executed Charles I.  When Humphrey Walrond took over the island, Colleton joined Thomas Modyford in negotiating a treaty with Cromwell’s representative that expelled Walrond and Willoughby.  Daniel Seale became governor. [38]

Oliver Cromwell was head of the Protectorate in England.  In 1655, he launched an attack on Spanish interests in the Caribbean.  When his fleet arrived in Barbados in January, [39] Robert Venables commissioned Colleton “as Major General of all the Protector’s forces in Barbados, which gave him command of the militia.  He also appointed him as Colonel of Regiment of Horse.”  He was expected to recruit soldiers from among the freemen. [40]

Seale, who had primary responsibility for defense of Barbados objected, and revoked the commission for Major General.  This led to several years of bickering between the governor and Colleton. [41]

Colleton’s primary interest was not politics, and it may not have been sugar.  He may have purchased his first plantation to raise money to pay his debts, so he could leave England.  In 1653, he had accumulated enough capital to buy a sugar plantation where he established his residence. [42]  With the Restoration of Charles II, he joined the remigration of planters back to London, leaving Peter, then 25 years old, to manage his interests on the island.

End Notes
I am using the given names of proprietors, not the changing titles they assumed in their careers.

1.  Duke of Albermarle.  Letter to Lord Willoughby, 31 Aug 1663.  Quoted by  M. Alston Read.  “Notes on Some Colonial Governors of South Carolina and Their Families.”  The South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 11(2):107–122:April 1910.  110.  His source was Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series.  Volume 5, America and West Indies, 1661-1668, edited by W. Noël Sainsbury.  London: published for Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1880.  157.  Emphasis in the original.

2.  Eugene Sirmans described Colleton as a “distant cousin” of “George Monck, Duke of Albermarle” in 1966. [43]  In 1944, Alfred Chandler had limited the relationship to “Thomas Modyford and his cousin, Sir John Colleton.” [44] This was repeated in 1974 by Peter Wood: “Peter Colleton (John’s son) and his influential relative, Sir Thomas Modyford.” [45]  By 1998, Walter Edgar declared “Colleton turned first to his cousin and his old friend, Lord Berekely.” [46]

3.  J. E. Buchanan.  “The Colleton Family and the Early History of South Carolina and Barbados 1646-1775.”  PhD dissertation.  University of Edinburgh, 1989.  43.

4.  Mark Stoyle.  Loyalty and Locality: Popular Allegiance in Devon during the English Civil War.  Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1994.  8.

5.  Stoyle.  19–20.
6.  “Potheridge.”  Wikipedia website.
7.  “George Smith (MP for Exeter).”  Wikipedia website.
8.  “George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle.”  Wikipedia website.

9.  The Visitation of the County of Devon in the Year 1620, edited by Frederic Thomas Colby.  London: Taylor and Company, 1872.  66.

10.  “Colleton, Chulmleigh.”  Wikipedia website.

11.  “The mystery illness which killed hundreds in one Devon town - and still baffles doctors to this day.”  Devon Online website.  Some think the sweating sickness may have been a species of Hantavirus.  Death occurred within 24 hours, affected rural areas more than urban ones, and often killed half the population in an area. [47]

12.  “Anne Hyde.” Wikipedia  website.
13.  Wikipedia, Colleton, Chulmleigh

14.  Richard Izacke.  Antiquities of the City of Exeter.  London: E. Tyler and R. Holt, 1677.  Excerpts available on Bodleian Library, Oxford University website.

15  Visitation.
16.  Izacke.
17.  Izacke.
18.  Robert A Prusak.  “Henry Hull, of Exeter.”  Geni website; last updated 29 October 2016.

19.  Woodman Mark Lowes Dickinson.  “Henry Hull, of Exeter.”  Geni website; last updated 29 October 2016.

20.  The two genealogies I found differ in key details, although both mention the marriage to Elizabeth Colleton.  Holly Pinkley has Crocker born about 1600 and dying in Plymouth Colony.” [48]  Richard Williams guesses his birth date as 1591 and doesn’t mention his place of death. [49]

21.  Buchanan.  13.

22.  “Sir John Colleton, 1st Baronet.”  Wikipedia website.  Its source is a baptismal record in the St Olave Parish of Exeter for 2 February 1609.  Eveline Cruickshanks says Catherine Amy was the daughter of William Amy. [50]  The only William Amy I could find was the son of Katherine’s brother Edward. [51]

23.  “Grant, cottages in Cowick Street, St Thomas, Exeter, Devon.”  Kresen Kernow website, reference number CF/1/2482.  The deed transfer was made on 7 August 1641.

24.  David Cornforth.  “Exeter during the Civil War.”  Exeter Memories website, 2007; last updated 22 April 2009.

25.  Eugene A. Andriette.  Devon and Exeter in the Civil War.  Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles, 1971.  95.

26.  Stoyle.  45.
27.  Izacke.
28.  Andriette.  143.
29.  Andriette.  156.
30.  Izacke.
31.  Wikipedia, John Colleton

32.  “Ordinance for granting a Pardon unto John Colleton, of Exeter, Merchant.”  Journal of the House of Commons, volume 5, 1646–1648.  London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1802.  420–421.  Posted online by British History website.  I can’t replicate the calculation; I think the qualifiers on the types of rents were factors.  Some were annual, one was for two thousand years, one for nine hundred years, and one for one life.  Many were calculated “in reversion.”

33.  “Committee for Compounding with Delinquents.”  Wikipedia website.
34.  Buchanan.  20.

35.  “Draft pass for John Colleton to go to Calais and back.”  House of Lords Main Papers for 8 August 1648.  National Archives website.

36.  Buchanan.  21.
37.  Buchanan.  22.
38.  Willoughby and Walrond are discussed in the post for 17 April 2022.
39.  “Invasion of Jamaica.”  Wikipedia website.

40.  Buchanan.  34.  He cites page 456 of the Calendar of State Papers, 1574-1600.  This seems like the wrong volume; the one for 1661 to 1668 is mentioned in the above note 1.

41.  Buchanan.  34–35.
42.  Buchanan.  32.

43.  M. Eugene Sirmans.  Colonial South Carolina: A Political History 1663–1764.  Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1966.  4.

44.  Alfred D. Chandler.  “The Expansion of Barbados.”  The Barbados Museum and Historical Society Journal 8:106+:1946.  Reprinted by P. F. Campbell.  61–89 in Chapters in Barbados History.  Saint Ann’s Garrison, Barbados: Barbados Museum and Historical Society, 1986.  77.

45.  Peter H. Wood.  Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion.  New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1974.  14.

46. Walter Edgar.  South Carolina.  Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.  330.

47.  “Sweating Sickness.”  Wikipedia website.

48.  Holly Pinkley.  “Hugh (Crocker) Crooker (abt. 1600 - abt. 1660).”  Wiki Tree website, 30 September 2014; last updated 24 September 2021.

49.  Richard Williams.  “Crocker of Lyneham/Croker of Lyneham.”  Genealogy website, 27 May 2011.

50.  Eveline Cruickshanks. “Colleton, Sir Peter, 2nd Bt. (1635-94), of Exmouth, Devon and Golden Square, Westminster.”  In B. D. Henning.  The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1660-1690.  London: Secker and Warburg, 1983.

51.  “Edward Amye.”  Geni website; last updated 19 November 2014.